Before compilers, what was primarily used to translate human-readable instructions?

The primary method used to translate human-readable instructions before the advent of compilers was assembly language. Assembly language serves as a low-level programming language that closely corresponds to machine code, making it more understandable for humans but still requiring translation to be executed by a computer's processor.

Assembly language uses mnemonic codes and symbols to represent machine-level instructions, making it simpler than binary machine code. Programmers would write instructions in assembly language, and these would be translated into machine code by an assembler, allowing the computer to understand and execute the tasks.

In contrast, high-level programming languages, which are more abstract and user-friendly, require compilers to convert them into machine code for execution. Machine code is the binary format that the computer's CPU can execute directly, but it is not human-readable. JavaScript, although a popular programming language used primarily for web development, emerged much later and is built on higher-level abstractions, requiring engines rather than being a direct translation method used in early programming.

Thus, the use of assembly language as a direct translation mechanism before the establishment of compilers makes it the correct choice.